Environment and Image

Introduction

Tourism - effect on culture, geographical features, ecology for example:

• Cave paintings -Lascaux -deteriorated noise, litter, souveniring, fires, erosion (sometimes tourists get blame when not at fault)

• Historic houses - visitor contribution – preservation

• Lucknow - India electricity generating authorities - turned damns and power-stations into tourist parks

Conceptions of tourist environments
Meaningfulness of tourist figures depend on size & capacity of tourist setting. The extent to which our perception of the environment matches our preferences will influence our experience and enjoyment.

Cohen (1979) proposed a 4 category model of tourist space:
High need for authenticity Vs Low need for authenticity
Staved environments Vs Authentic environments

How might this classification be useful?
1. General. Appropriate for all levels of hierarchy of tourist environments.
2. Adds cognitive, attributional component to theme of man-environment interaction. e.g. Disney world – high score on pleasure/arousal dimensions but is see environment as structured and inauthentic and dislike this sort of environment cognitive experience becomes critical one
3. Explicit enough to provide testable predictions on tourist-environment interactions.


Attitude change to tourist environments

Does tourist experience leave tourist with mental souvenirs (changed images) and conceptions of a place visited?

Travel can change attitudes – Implicit assumption in tourist literature and travel
scholarships.

Pearce (1981) - perceptions of foreign countries as holiday destinations
Young package tourists holidaying in Greece and Morocco.
Hypothesis - “travel broadens the mind”.
Method - rate 13 constructs – e.g. cheap shopping, pleasant people, appealing food, good beaches, interesting politics/society.
Findings - support change hypothesis. Perception of home environment also changes.

Sonnerfield (1967) perceptions of Alaska
Increased familiarity and travel contact with new environment promoted appreciation for environment. Also affects images of visited cities.

Applications
Travel can alter attitudes so enhance international relations & environmental awareness. Some motivated to political action in issues of human rights and international and environmental concerns. International travel is one of the forces shrinking the subjective distance between the observer and international events, thus increasing the emotional impact of such phenomena. e.g. impacts of wars, terrorist attacks, natural disasters more powerful & immediate if observer can link it to his/her own experience in that environment.

Environmental interpretation & orientation

Barriers between tourists and the environment

Sometimes there are conscious management plans to control visitor damage (Cohen 1978) or to preserve the privacy of residents (Bosselman 1978)

How could model of tourist - environmental authenticity (Cohen 1979) be applied to the field of managing environments? - Three issues

1. Visitors need for authenticity and contact with environment
2. Unique and authentic features of that environment
3. Interface between the tourist and the environmental setting

Study 1
Tourist caves Northern Australia. 2 year study of visitors to limestone caves at Chillagoe, North Queensland. Visitors expected to encounter a set of environmental features which had been changed little by human discovery & contact. Their experiences confirmed this. Major factors - unobtrusive lighting fittings, unsurfaced cave paths, no special coloured lighting of cave features, few signs of cave damage by other visitors and use of hand held & magnesium lights in the large cave. Visitors highly satisfied on all tours. Caves were remote so filtered out visitors. Quality and kind of experience offered is quite well defined.

Study 2
English Tourist Board - role of tourism in relation to preservation and conservation of cathedrals. Does not work as smoothly as last example! Visitors seek to understand and admire cathedrals for artistic and cultural and historical value, the clergy & support staff emphasise spiritual and cultural experiences available. Authenticity model stresses that the on-site experience of visitor is altered by the current religious functions of cathedrals. Competing contemporary functions. Few filters were in place to control visitor access. Experience offered not well defined. Perhaps the future of visiting cathedrals rests on publicity to get the right kind of visitor.

Maps and orientation

Most tourist environments present visitor with problems of orientation - finding way around. Reluctance to seek orientation information stems from tourists desire to not appear foolish & over dependant or ‘the average tourist’. Visitors to museums and displays prefer not to ask attendants for directions, but will consult them on contents of displays etc. (Bell, Fisher & Loomis 1978). Disorientation is emotionally arousing and unpleasant (Lynch, 1960). It is apparent therefore that tourist maps should be readily available. e.g. Specific tourist maps of Durham, York & Newcastle-upon-Tyne: Several hundred questions about landmarks, routes and perceived distances in the city and took these factors into consideration when he drew the maps of the cities. These contain many distortions of space and distance which resemble people’s impressions of the environment. The have aesthetic appeal for tourists. So may promote their use and assist tourists' way finding through map reading.

Problems with maps:
Maps have different functions - tourists have different requirements to town planners. Reid (1980) found that drivers and passengers remembered routes and landmarks differently – depending on whether the person was actively involved in finding way in visited city. In addition there is thought to be sex differences in cognitive mapping. Pearce (1977) found that males and females equally oriented but achieved in different ways (Females - landmarks and districts. Males – use street systems and angles between points to organise them spatially).



Personal Space and Territoriality

Personal Space

"Personal Space Bubble" used by numerous authors including Henley Centre for Forecasting (1992) & Proshansky (1976). The need to create 'home' is likely to involve extending the personal space bubble to include the hotel room. This is influenced by culture & personality. Researchers have noted Generic place dependence - e.g. mountains and Geographic place dependence - e.g. same hotel each year. Other tourists want to escape to different, new environments.

Territoriality

•'control & ownership of place'
•may be temporary or permanent
•by a person or a group
"territories are often personalised or marked ... defence may occur when territorial boundaries
are violated (Altman & Chemers, 1980).e.g. singing anthems (football songs), marking territory at swimming pool by towels

What tourists want...

Tourist seeks more than basic food and shelter but does not insist on all the other attributes of 'home'.
1. A business traveller - large business hotel, degree of anonymity. Convenience of service and gadgetry compensate from being away from home.
2. Mass-market package holiday-maker - wants intensive recreation. Usually accept fewer facilities than business traveller. Anonymity not a problem as accompanied either by people he/she knows or hopes to get to know. Or glad to be away from the people who know him/her so they can behave as they wish!
3. Bed and breakfaster on rural short break - 'home' sought and recreated - home cooking, historic property, furnished with owners belongings.
4. Participant in Self-catering group holiday - forego many facilities often seek depth of rapport / relationships.


Tourism Environments - Design & Management based on Holloway (1994)

The environment around us has been planned and designed. Even down to shop frontages, colour and street signs our attitudes and perception can be influenced. Design of the environment is an essential issue for tourism managers who want to create a good image of a destination in order to attract or retain visitors.

Urban Environments
Many features of city life correlate with stress levels this had been shown to relate to a number of factors. Psychological overload, too much noise and activity, can lead to stress. For some people the hustle and bustle of a city can be stressful and so detract from the tourist experience but people who are used to busy environments can filter out the activity. To reduce this, the environment needs to be more pleasant because research shows that this overload can intensify the feelings fostered by the environment. Many city centres now are reducing this feeling of intensity by imaginative use of design and landscape, seating, colour and art. Noise can create stress, especially if it is unpredictable to this has to be considered when designing a tourist environment. A number of attractions use soothing music to create a relaxed atmosphere and help filter out the unwanted noises and distractions. When the temperature is too hot, people can become more aggressive so temperature control should be considered in buildings.
Overcrowding can be an issue for tourists but the feeling of crowding is psychological, subjective. Where we are will help determine whether we consider we are being crowded or not, for example if we went to a football match we would not mind being close to those around us but if we went shopping we would be more disturbed by a high density of people.


Architecture & Building design
Design has two main roles Functional (does the job better) and Aesthetic (looks good). To some extent aesthetics are subjective and not everyone would agree on what is a ‘good’ or ‘bad’ design. For example, Windsor Castle – after the fire in 1993 there was debate as to how it should be rebuilt – should it be rebuilt exactly the same to preserve the building style and heritage or should it is be rebuilt taking the opportunity to modernise the building? For the tourist, design of buildings reflects the traditions of local architecture and as they often travel around a town on foot, a good street level design is important. Shop fronts can be very important also as one key motive of tourists is often shopping. The modernity of a building’s architecture may not be popular but can still attract tourists e.g. the Pompidou Centre in Paris. Different building designs can influence our psychological interpretation of the environment: concrete stairs and sterile walls foster a sense of detachment while personal touches can make the environment more welcoming and less likely to foster crime.

Landscape
Often one of the attractions about English country villages is the way the houses blend in with the landscape and the surroundings. The use of water to create an environment has been increasingly become popular, the retention of traditional bollards and other waterway features can add to the experience. Country walls can again play a part in creating a country feel to an environment and the use of five bar gates can also influence our perception. Tourists need car parks but these should blend into the environment. For example in some country parks, small rocks or logs often mark out car parking areas.

Street furniture
Street furniture plays a larger part in our image of the landscape than we appreciate – for example red telephone boxes and letterboxes that are now disappearing. A walk around the tourist shops in places like London, show that red telephone boxes are on of the images sold as a representation of England. In recent years Local Authorities have put thought into the layout of public seating, litterbins and such with particular styles being adopted by each authority do create a particular image or style. “Heritage sites such as York or Chester are most likely to opt for a classic or modern design to blend with the architecture of the area. Unfortunately, this has led to the development of a ubiquitous design in cast iron with gold motifs, frequently bearing the crest of the city, which, while tasteful and elegant, does little to distinguish the city’s streets from countless others in the country. However, these designs are to be welcomed over some of the products they replace, such as the plastic litter bin, in a choice of battleship grey or garish yellow”. (Holloway, J. (1994) The Business of Tourism pp 242)

Pedestrianisation
Many tourist towns now have pedestrianisation of areas of the towns. Often narrow streets can add to the attraction of an area and can focus attention on the tourist and buildings rather than the vehicles. The walkway needs to be well designed in terms of street furniture, shop frontages, flowers & trees etc. This can transform a narrow lane into a pleasant tourist area.

Horticultural Displays
Use of flower displays in hanging baskets or beside a road can transform a pretty village to an outstanding village or an urban landscape into a more pleasant environment. Many towns and villages compete for desired flower dressing awards, which then become part of their tourism promotion. This can be expensive but does create a good environment and an attractive image of the town for visitors.

Art & Tourism
There has been a trend towards using art to improve destination images, not just as gallery and art exhibitions but also to use street art to attract tourists - there have been a number of famous sculptures in the news. Some cities in the US enforce regulations requiring a percentage of money spent on a new development to be spent on public art at the site. It is also possible to enhance an image using sculpture, for example, Hamelin in Germany has erected a statue of the
Pied Piper and Bremen has used scenes from Grimms’ fairy tales, musicians and other sculptures.

Lighting
Lighting can also play an important part in image making both in terms of the design of the lights themselves and also in the effect the lights can create. It is important not to over light somewhere and although coloured lighting can look good when focusing on a building or object it is rarely effective if overdone.

Colour
Colour can create impressions, whether in buildings or part of the street furniture. Much research has demonstrated that colour can affect mood and influence our behaviour. Colour is often used to indicate quality or style. Shops that promote themselves as ‘quality’ often use the colour green in their displays (e.g. Marks & Spencers) while fast food outlets often use reds and yellows. Many uniforms are dark colours to indicate a professional approach while tourist guides or travel reps often wear bright colours such as red to create a lively or fun image.

Signposting
Directional Signposting - Traffic & pedestrian signs giving directions must be clearly legible. They should be identifiable by a standard and easily recognised colour and have uniform size and shapes. Tourism managers do not design traffic signs, but they are involved, often, in the use of signposting directing tourists. ‘Traditional’ classic signposts are often used for example black with white lettering.
Informative Signposting - These may be to alert people passing to a particular site or to give information within an attraction about the site itself. In 1986 the Department of Transport in Britain introduced white text on brown signs. There were 35 different pictures to represent tourist attractions. There are now limits on when it is permitted to use these signs. For example an historic house must attract 5,000 visitors a year before it is permitted to use a brown sign with white writing. In Britain we also have traditional blue plaques outside homes of famous people (living or not). These have been able to give added value to tourists walking around British streets.
Utility - Signs to direct visitors to public utilities such as toilets and public telephones. They are often smaller than other signs and frequently make use of pictures which helps non-English speakers. Often models or symbols have been used to indicate places again useful if people can not read the local language.


Management Of Tourist Sites

Interpretation
When we visit tourist attractions we expect to be educated and entertained; the importance of getting a visitor involved is something tourism managers need to ponder. Visitors can be transported to another age by use of scene setting, costumes and multimedia. Barmaids in period costume will pull pints at pubs in the Iron Bridge Gorge Museum, people dressed in period costume tell you about life in days gone by in the Black Country Museum and show you artefacts and techniques of the past. All these places face the problem of attracting and appealing to different customers at the same time: signs created for children may be viewed by adults as patronising and too much information can put a visitor off an exhibit. The solution is to create a variety of forms of communication to cater for the different visitors.

An important issue for managers is the flow of visitors and as this is rarely constant, how to deal with fluctuations in visitor numbers. Some exhibits are in constant demand and there are often more visitors than can reasonably be able to view them. One solution to this is to limit entry to reservations only up to the maximum recommended numbers. Overpricing to reduce demand is another option but rarely used as it can be seen as unfair. Queues need to be organised and the getting the balance between hurrying people along and allowing them time to view an exhibit as they have queued is difficult. If visitors are to be kept waiting, it may be possible to introduce some entertainment while they wait. The Rat ride in Light Water Valley has a long wait but tension is built up with sound clips of reports about plagues of rats and the related dangers and by sounds of rats, and clanking that might be heard in cellars. Walking through mock sewers and seeing mist and sprays also hype the atmosphere up. At Alton Towers, they use a variety of queue management techniques: queues are segmented to appear shorter, buskers entertain people queuing, signs indicate how long a wait should be expected from various points (the need to know is often as important as the speed of access!), and snaked queues make the queue appear shorter and encourage communication between those waiting. Once inside an attraction people move at different speeds. This has been addressed by escorting visitors around, in the Jorvik Centre in York visitors are transported in ‘time carts’. Some stately homes have guides who are experienced in moving visitors along at appropriate paces. This may deal with the movement of tourists but may also leave some feeling they have missed the authentic experience.

TOURIST DESTINATION IMAGES


Defining Destination Image

Imagery overriding impression or 'stereotype' Hunt (1975) & Mayo (1973). Other authors describe it as broader than that: equated with knowledge 'an image is not necessarily objective knowledge. Rather, it is subjective knowledge. Knowledge carries the implication of validity and truth. Image connotes what I believe to be true, or what you as an individual person believe to be true' ... so in this sense image is 'our own personalised, internalised and conceptualised understanding of what we know' (Markin, 1974). ‘Touristic destination images can be viewed as "pull" factors. Therefore, understanding how images are formed is critical to developing the "pull" potential of a destination' (Gartner, 1993).

The images used to promote a destination
Contrast in attractions offered to visitors to Britain and France during the Channel crossings "Ferry companies tend to present France in a very different way from the way in which Britain is presented. As an illustration, in the last year Sealink Stena advertised the works of Monet and encouraged visitors to go to Giverney on the way to Paris, whilst P & O's French language short breaks brochure concentrated on British Cheeses, afternoon teas, 'le casque de bobby' and 'la milk bottle'" National Economic Development Organisation (1992b) Britain is often "portrayed as land of castles, cottages and hedgerows, where men wear kilts or bearskin hats, and people dance around maypoles" (Laws, 1995)


Why Do We Use Destination Images
They are important in our choice of product / service. Choice affected by a product’s performance characteristics and our perception.

How Do We Use Destination Images
Destination managers need to evaluate perception of destination then devise strategies to enhance, strengthen, alter or create image.

Hunt (1975) pointed out that 'all places have images- good, bad and indifferent - that must be identified and either changed or exploited'. The way that we perceive places and situations will affect our behaviour and choices. Lapage & Cormier (1977) say that 'in many cases, it is probably the image more than the factual information that produces a tourist’s decision on where to travel'

What Makes Up A Destination Image

COGNITIVE - evaluation of known attributes, images derived from fact - cognitive image results in part from amount of external stimuli. Cognitive image may be formed by previous travel there
OR may have no idea where it is!!
AFFECTIVE - relates to motives for destination selection. Destination valuation affected by what we hope to gain.
BEHAVIOURAL / CONATIVE - the action component. All internal & external information is processed make a decision. One destination is selected. The choice depends on the images developed during the cognitive stage and evaluated during the affective stage.


How Is a Destination Image Formed?

According to Gunn (1972) images formed through induced and organic agents:
INDUCED - emanate from destination area and are a function of the marketing efforts of destination promoters: advertising & publicity on the part of the tourism industry
ORGANIC - formed from sources not directly associated with a destination area. News stories, documentaries, movies, text-books other apparent unbiased sources, socialisation NB key difference between induced & organic is the control of destination over image presented)

Examples Of Application

HOLLAND
Fisher (1984) as result of image studies was able to create successful promotional campaigns. Holland had positive image in US market but it was a nostalgic vision of old Amsterdam,tulips, Gouda & Edam cheese and windmills. They offered special bonus packages as an incentive to visit more of the countryside with points given for each province visited. Efforts were also made to promote the cultural variety of the country. Holland Culture Card (cultural credit card) operated in conjunction with 'museums pass', 'meet the Dutch' welcome parties and an effort to promote lowlands cuisine.

BIRMINGHAM
According to Baedeckers (1968) Birmingham was “Built on a series of gentle hills ... one of the most important metal-working centres in the world”. The Rough Guide to England (1994) described it as “…the first purely industrial city…its industrial legacy is chiefly to be seen in a crop of excellent heritage museums, (and) …an extensive network of canals…”
More recently another writer said “The shift to a post-manufacturing economy is symbolised by the brand new city centre conference centre and by the enormous National Exhibition Centre in the outskirts, while Birmingham’s cultural initiatives – enticing a division of the Royal Ballet to take up residence here, and building a fabulous new concert hall for the City of Birmingham Symphony Orchestra – have no equal outside the capital.” Recently, Sir Albert Bore (Leader of Birmingham City Council) said “Birmingham has reinvented itself over the last decade. Our city centre is now one of the most cosmopolitan, vibrant and exciting places in Europe and there is a real sense of optimism in the future. What is more, Birmingham people are proud of their city and all
that has been achieved.”

Birmingham has made many efforts to promote itself and its image. These include improvements to the environment: clear street signs, clean streets, new focal points, extra pedestrian seating, extended green havens, consistent colour scheme for street furniture, removal of clutter and redundant signs, urban trails to encourage exploration, develop canals, improved access - good public transport, secure car parking, easy pathways/routes and good access for people with disabilities.

Birmingham has built or developed numerous attractions and venues which have hosted international conferences and events to encourage visitors:NEC, ICC, NIA, Lions, Eurovision, G8, Brindley Place, Birmingham Card (March 2003), £400,000 Welcome Centre New Street (June 2003), International Motor Show, Food Show, Millennium Point, redevelopment of Bullring, Martineau Galleries, themed markets, Birmingham ArtsFest & International Street Theatre 2006/2007, shopping destination (Attracting companies and shops to centre Mailbox, Bull Ring etc.)

Birmingham have worked hard to improve the image of the city by using creative imagery - creation of new ‘brand’, café culture, award schemes – Town Centre Environment Awards, Charter Mark, Cleanest City Competition and Britain in Bloom.





Suggested Reading Environment

Brayshaw, D. (1995) Negative publicity about tourism destinations - a Florida case study. EIU Travel and Tourism Analyst no. 5.

Chon, K.S. (1991) Tourism destination image modification process: marketing implications. Tourism Management, March 1991.

Holloway, J.C. (1994) The Business of Tourism. Longman, Singapore.

Meehhan, K. (1996) Place, Image and Power: Brighton as a Resort. In Selwyn, T. (Ed) The Tourism Image: Myths and Myth Making in Tourism. John Wiley & Sons Ltd

Oliver, K. (2002) Pychology in Practice: Environment. Hodder & Stoughton, Oxford.

Page, S. (1997) Urban Tourism: Analysing and Evaluating the Tourist Experience. In Ryan, C. (ed) The Tourist Experience: a new introduction. Cassell, London.

Phelps, A. (1986) Holiday destination image - the problem of assessment: an example developed in Menorca. Tourism Management, September 1986.

Riley, R.W. & Van Doren, C.S. (1992) Movies as tourism promotion: a 'pull' factor in a 'push'location. Tourism Management, September 1992.

Ross, G. (1994) The Psychology of Tourism. Hospitality Press, Melbourne.

Tooke, N. & Baker, M. (1996) Seeing is believing: the effect of film on visitor numbers to screened locations. Tourism Management, Vol 17, no. 2.

Voase, R. (1995) Tourism: the human perspective. Hospitality Press, Melbourne.

Yuan, S.M. and Yuan, M.S. (!995) Understanding the relationship between tourism destination choice and the physical environment: a social psychological approach. The 1995 Leisure Research Symposium http://www.indiana.edu/~lrs/lrs95/syuan95-2.html