Consumer Behaviour

TOURIST MOTIVATION

It is easy to quantify the ‘who, where, when and how’ of tourism but it is more difficult to understand the ‘Why’? However, this knowledge can bring important benefits for tourism management and marketing and promotion.

This decision process has been linked to Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of needs & tourism:

=> need for ‘self-actualisation’ can be met in a number of ways:
• desire to commune with nature
• quest for knowledge
• meaningful cultural exchange

=> strenuous holidays that provide opportunities for people to test their physical abilities may be a search for competence.

=> travel to a particular destination: desire for status within their neighbourhood or circle of friends may be a factor in choice of holiday (i.e. ego needs).

=> a desire to return to the same destination on a regular basis may be the fulfillment of their need for safety and security by returning to the tried and tested.

=> lower order needs have to be satisfied before we seek to satisfy the higher order needs. We need to have food and accommodation.


Other authors propose a range of different psychological factors affecting demand for holidays:


Escape motivation - to get away from perceived mundane environment

Relaxation - part of the escape motivation, desire for recuperation

Play - desire to indulge in the activities associated with childhood. Do things not normally acceptable

Strengthening Family Bonds – time together to renew relationship and focus on family. However,Relate reports that holidays can be a time when realise grown apart -> strain on marriage

Prestige - for status and social enhancement. Fashionable / Unusual / Exotic

Status - in group of holiday makers - group identity - perceive superior to other tourists or host society

Social interaction - disregard usual normal conventions. Share common experience & no knowledge of each others background. Group dynamics are very important!

Special interest holidays - like minded people e.g. Singles holidays - so can join group not be isolated

Sexual opportunity - overt or implied, physical or romantic
1930s - cross Atlantic Cruise ship; 18 -30s holidays reputation
Often loose constraints/responsibilities: more eating/drinking/noise acceptable on holiday

Educational Opportunity - new/strange sights, learn about other places and talk to those of other culture/viewpoint. However there is an increasing global understanding - global village e.g. Coke sign universal

Self fulfillment - self discovery
Medieval Age - pilgrimage to holy land
Secular Age - create own holy places beauty spot / activity holiday
Planned or unexpected self discovery
Sometimes return from holiday with changed life perspective or outlook other times an inner strength from fulfillment

Wish fulfilment - fulfil a dream, translate pretence into reality
* West World - film holidaymakers travelled to place where robots permit them to act out fantasies
* Historical travel - Black Country Museum

Shopping - one of most common tourist activities. Sometimes motivating factor too
E.g. Sign Free Trading Agreement (Canada & USA in 1987)
• Canadian $ strong 1988 - 31% increase in traffic 1988 Canada /US border.
• Customs filings for imported goods for Canadians buying in the US up 133%

CLASSIFYING TRAVEL MOTIVATIONS - A number of classifications of travel motivations have been proposed, some of these are outlined below:

Dann (1977) - Most motivations fit into 2 essential drives: "PUSH" motivation - wish to get away from a place and "PULL" motivation - desire to visit a particular place

McIntosh (1977) - 4 basic travel motivations: Physical Motivators - physical rest, sports participation, beach recreation, relaxing; Cultural Motivators - desire for knowledge of other countries - music, art, folklore, religion; Interpersonal Motivators - desire to meet new people, visit friends & relatives and Status & Prestige Motivators - desire for recognition, appreciation, good reputation

Hudman (1980): 10 motivations: health, curiosity, sports (participation) , sports (speculating), pleasure, visiting friends and relatives, professional and business, pursuit of ‘roots’, self esteem and religion

Schmoll (1977) 5 general travel motivations: educational & cultural, relaxation, adventure & pleasure, health & recreation (including sport), ethnic & family and social & competitive (incl. status and prestige)

Crompton (1979) nine motives affecting choice of destination: Escape temporarily from a mundane environment, Exploration & evaluation of self: opportunity to discover who they are, what is really important, where they are heading in life, Relaxation, Prestige, Regression: trips away from normal constraints provide people with safe opportunities to be childish for a while, Enhancement of kin relationships, Social interaction: to meet people, and to enjoy company in a casual, non-obligated context, Novelty: experiences that satisfy curiosity, are adventurous, new and different and Education: need to learn something about the world personally in places away from home


CRITICISMS OF TYPOLOGIES

There are a lot of different typologies but only a limited number of categories they cover – just use different names. As a result of their general nature they are descriptive and too simple to fully explain the complexity of tourist behavior. Further many are over 10 years old so don’t take into account recent changes in society – mass long-haul, budget cruises, internet.


MODELS OF CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR IN TOURISM

Sharpley (1994) - Two approaches to motivation:
“EXTRINSIC” – factors that are external to the individual (social) Such as friends and family, marketing, media influence , national situation – social/economic/political/techno and international situation (such as social/economic/politics)

“INTRINSIC” – factors that are internal, the personal needs of the tourists (psychological). Such as Knowledge (of the Destination, options, price differences); Attitude/perception & motivation (destination, politics, preference for country/culture, advance booking, value for money, discounts, standards of behaviour, fear of travel) and Experiences (types of holiday, different destinations, products offered, trip with others)


Gilbert (1991)




Wahab, Crompton & Rothfield (1976)
Purchase of holiday involves logical thought processes:





Schmoll (1977)
4 elements to consumer decision



Matheson and Wall (1982)






PROBLEMS WITH MODLES

Most models are linear. They do not usually indicate which factors are more important. Most models are not based on empirical evidence/research. They tend to see tourists as one homoeneous group and assume that decisions made by tourists are rational. Further, most models are at least 15 year old and so are not all able to account for recent developments in tourism such as all inclusive resorts, direct marketing, last minute holidays and the internet.

DO WE NEED MODELS?

Tourism has just started taking this research seriously – if we know how consumers make decisions we are able to develop marketing plans. e.g. when to try to influence consumer in different way / choice of advertising media most used / select distribution channel or marketing intermediary

Tourism marketing segmentation – demographic (age/sex) geographical psycho graphical (personality) behaviouristic (benefits expected / 1st time buyer) BUT only psychographics is included in the models used.

Models do have role to play!


Suggested Reading

Pizamn A. and Mansfeld, Y. (2000) Consumer Behaviour in Travel and Tourism. Haworth Hospitality Press, New York. Chapter 1 – consumer behaviour related to tourism.

Ross, G. (1998) The Psychology Of Tourism. Hospitality Press, Melbourne. Chapters 2 and 4 - motivation & the tourist.

Sharpley, (1994) Tourism, Tourists & Society. Elm Publications, Huntingdon. Chapter 4.

Swarbrooke, J. and Horner, S. (1999) Consumer Behaviour in Tourism. Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford. Part 1, 2 and 3.